Stress Management

In the introduction of the lecture, we will look at the development of the concept of stress from the classical understanding to the present day. We will systematize the types of stress: positive stress; negative stress; insufficient stress. We will look at why a little stress can be healthy, but excessive stress causes problems.

Questions of the lesson:

• How is "stress" defined scientifically and how does it differ from the term "anxiety" used in everyday life?
• In what way can positive stress improve performance, and why can excessive stress (distress) be harmful?

Literature:

• Lu, S., Wei, F., Li, G. (2021). The evolution of the concept of stress and the framework of the stress system. Cell Stress, 5(6):76–85. doi: 10.15698/cst2021.06.250
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

The lesson will analyze the body's specific responses to the situation caused by excessive negative stress. Discussed about stress coping methods and strategies.

Lesson questions:

• What are the main components of stress reactions (both physiological and psychological) that can be distinguished in a stress situation?
• What are the types and techniques of excessive negative stress regulation?

Literature:

• Lu, S., Wei, F., Li, G. (2021). The evolution of the concept of stress and the framework of the stress system. Cell Stress, 5(6):76–85. doi: 10.15698/cst2021.06.250
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

The lecture will focus on workplace stress and psychosocial factors at work that cause tension and chronic stress in employees. We will analyze typical workplace stressors. Special attention will be paid to burnout syndrome. The definition and symptoms of burnout syndrome according to the latest international guidelines will be discussed.

Topics of the lesson:

• Which factors in the work environment most often cause chronic stress in employees, how can they be recognized?
• How is burnout syndrome defined and what are its signs?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 258
• Future Forum Pulse (2024). https://futureforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Future-Forum-Pulse-Report-Fall-2022.pdf
• WHO (2025). ICD-11 Implementation, https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/frequently-asked-questions/icd-11-implementation

In the lesson, we will analyze the factors of burnout syndrome and its preventive measures.

Lesson question:

• What preventive measures can we take to prevent burnout syndrome for ourselves and others?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 258
• WHO (2025). ICD-11 Implementation, https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/frequently-asked-questions/icd-11-implementation

In this lecture, we will analyze academic stress – the main stress factors for students and teaching staff. We will explore the most important stressors for students and the consequences of academic stress.

Questions of the lesson:

• What factors in the study process most often cause stress in students and how do these factors manifest themselves in the daily life of students?
• How can prolonged and unmanaged stress affect a student's health and academic performance?
• What resources can students themselves use to reduce the negative impact of academic stress?

Literature:

• Brata, W., Susanto, H., Zubaidah, S. (2025). Theoretical underpinnings and future research on academic stress in biological and educational perspectives. Review Article, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12 (146), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04484-w
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

This lecture focuses on sources of everyday (domestic) stress and their management. We will analyze the most common everyday stressors. The cumulative effect of "small" everyday stressors will be emphasized. The lecture will discuss stress management strategies for everyday life.

Questions of the lecture:

• What everyday life events and situations most often cause chronic stress in people, and how to recognize these sources of stress in a timely manner?
• How do global crisis events (such as the pandemic, war, economic crises) resonate in the level of everyday stress for individuals?
• Why should "small" domestic stressors not be ignored, and what is their possible cumulative effect on a person's psycho-emotional state?

Literature:

• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations. BMC Public Health, 24 (3576), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

In this lecture, we will theoretically discuss how people cope with stress and what determines a person's psychological resilience. We will get to know the classification of stress coping strategies.

Questions of the lesson:

• What are the main categories of stress coping strategies and what practical techniques illustrate them?
• Which stress coping methods are considered unhealthy and how can they affect a person's psychological health in the long term?
• What is psychological resilience and what factors help a person be resistant to the negative effects of stress?

Literature:

• Jannah, M., Widohardhono, R., Rachman, N., Sholichah, IF., Purnomo, RAA., Jaroah, S., Hidayah, R. (2025). Student Athletes: Does Emotional Regulation Affect Mental Toughness? International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences 13(3), 571-576, https://www.hrpub.org/download/20250530/SAJ10-19931568.pdf
• Li, Y., Zheng, P. (2025). Trait resilience protects against social anxiety in college students through emotion regulation and coping strategies. Scientific Reports, 15 (1), DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-13674-0
• Stokenberga, I., Freimane, G., Sudraba, V., Bite, V. (2015). Veselība un slimība psiholoģijā. Psiholoģija 2, Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 171-244.

In this lesson, we will explore various scientifically-based methods used for stress reduction and management.

Lesson questions:

• What are the key stress reduction techniques that an individual can use in their daily life and how do they work on the mind and body?
• Why are physical activity and relaxation techniques considered effective stress coping methods, and what are the scientifically-proven benefits of these methods?

Literature:

• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081077
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

In the final theoretical lecture We will look at the development trends and new challenges in stress management in society. We will discuss how the "nature" of stress has changed in the 21st century of digitization. We will analyze a new phenomenon "technostress" and its contributing consequences and impact on the body.

Class questions:

• What new types and sources of stress have emerged in today's digitalized and globalized world, and how do they affect human well-being?
• Why stress management is not just an individual task – what role do employers, educational institutions and public policy play in reducing stress in society?
• How does reducing stress levels and supporting mental health in society relate to the Sustainable Development Goals and overall societal well-being?

Literature:

• Borle, P., Reichel, K., Niebuhr, F., Voelter-Mahlknecht, S. (2021). How are techno-stressors associated with mental health and work outcomes? A systematic review of occupational exposure to information and communication technologies within the technostress model.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16):8673. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18168673
• Litan, DE. (2025). The Impact of Technostress Generated by Artificial Intelligence on the Quality of Life: The Mediating Role of Positive and Negative Affect.Behavioral Sciences,15(4):552. doi:10.3390/bs15040552
• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations.BMC Public Health, 24 (3576),https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4

The goal of the practical class is to help students become aware of their stress level and identify individual stressors. At the beginning of the class, students will fill out a stress self-assessment survey to quantify how much stress they have experienced in the last month. After that, students will be introduced to the "stress diary" method.

Questions of the class:

• How to assess your subjective stress level and what are the signs that stress has become elevated?
• How to identify your main sources of stress in everyday life - which events or situations cause me the most tension personally?
• What physical and emotional symptoms does stress cause in me, and what are my current (perhaps unconscious) strategies to respond to it?

Literature:

• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations. BMC Public Health, 24 (3576), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4
• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

The focus of this lesson is to learn relaxation techniques that reduce acute stress reactions.

Lesson questions:

• How to properly perform deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation, and what physiological changes do these methods cause in the body?
• Which of the learned relaxation techniques do I personally consider the most effective for me, and in what moments of everyday life could I use it to reduce stress?
• Why can regular practice of relaxation exercises increase stress resilience in the long term?

Literature:

• Tavoian, D., Craighead, DH., (2023). Deep breathing exercise at work: Potential applications and impact. Frontiers in Physiology, 14:1040091. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1040091

In this practical session, students will learn cognitive techniques for stress reduction – recognizing negative thoughts arising in stressful situations and transforming them into more constructive ones.

Session questions:

• How to recognize thinking errors and negative automatic thoughts in stressful situations, and how to consciously transform them into more positive and realistic beliefs?
• How to approach a problem that causes stress in a structured way to find possible solutions?
• How can proactive action and regaining a sense of control over the situation affect stress levels compared to passive avoidance?

Literature:

• Brata, W., Susanto, H., Zubaidah, S. (2025). Theoretical underpinnings and future research on academic stress in biological and educational perspectives. Review Article, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12 (146), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04484-w
• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

In this lecture, students will experience a practical introduction to the application of mindfulness techniques as a support for stress reduction.

Lecture questions:

• What is mindfulness and how can regular use of mindfulness techniques help reduce the subjective experience of stress?
• What were the personal challenges and benefits I experienced when trying out a short "body scan" exercise?
• How could I practice mindfulness techniques in my daily life in the future (mentioning a specific situation or moment where to integrate it), and how can it potentially improve my ability to cope with stressful situations?

Literature:

• Li, WW., Nannestad, J., Leow, T., Heward, C. (2024). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on depression, PTSD, and mindfulness among military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Open, 11:20551029241302969. doi: 10.1177/20551029241302969

This lesson is devoted to the possibilities of using social skills and support in stress regulation.

Lesson questions:

• What resources of social support are available to me and how could I more actively involve them in my stress management?
• What are the signs of active, empathetic listening and how can such listening help reduce the speaker's stress?
• What techniques can be used to politely but firmly refuse a request or suggestion that puts too much pressure on me, how does setting such a boundary help reduce stress in the long term?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Zvaigzne ABC Publishing, 258
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). The Anatomy of Stress, R.:154

This lesson focuses on the role of healthy lifestyle in stress resilience and concludes with the development of an individual stress management plan for each student.

Lesson questions:

• What lifestyle changes (sleep, nutrition, physical activity) can most improve my ability to withstand stress, what specific changes did I decide to make in my habits?
• How to create a personal stress management plan? What should it include and how does it help structure my actions in stressful situations?

Literature:

• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

This will be a continuation of the previous lesson, in which each student will summarize all the methods and information learned in the course to create their own personalized stress management plan. This plan should include: my main stressors; early signs that I am stressed; my "action strategy" - which methods I will use to relieve acute stress; long-term prevention - what I will do on a regular basis. Students develop the plan in writing, which is considered a "work sheet" that the student takes with them into real life. The work must be presented in the lecture theatre.

Lesson question:

• Why is it important to proactively plan steps to reduce stress and not wait until stress becomes uncontrollable?

In the introduction of the lecture, we will look at the development of the concept of stress from the classical understanding to the present day. We will systematize the types of stress: positive stress; negative stress; insufficient stress. We will look at why a little stress can be healthy, but excessive stress causes problems.

Questions of the lesson:

• How is "stress" defined scientifically and how does it differ from the term "anxiety" used in everyday life?
• In what way can positive stress improve performance, and why can excessive stress (distress) be harmful?

Literature:

• Lu, S., Wei, F., Li, G. (2021). The evolution of the concept of stress and the framework of the stress system. Cell Stress, 5(6):76–85. doi: 10.15698/cst2021.06.250
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

The lesson will analyze the body's specific responses to the situation caused by excessive negative stress. Discussed about stress coping methods and strategies.

Lesson questions:

• What are the main components of stress reactions (both physiological and psychological) that can be distinguished in a stress situation?
• What are the types and techniques of excessive negative stress regulation?

Literature:

• Lu, S., Wei, F., Li, G. (2021). The evolution of the concept of stress and the framework of the stress system. Cell Stress, 5(6):76–85. doi: 10.15698/cst2021.06.250
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

The lecture will focus on workplace stress and psychosocial factors at work that cause tension and chronic stress in employees. We will analyze typical workplace stressors. Special attention will be paid to burnout syndrome. The definition and symptoms of burnout syndrome according to the latest international guidelines will be discussed.

Topics of the lesson:

• Which factors in the work environment most often cause chronic stress in employees, how can they be recognized?
• How is burnout syndrome defined and what are its signs?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 258
• Future Forum Pulse (2024). https://futureforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Future-Forum-Pulse-Report-Fall-2022.pdf
• WHO (2025). ICD-11 Implementation, https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/frequently-asked-questions/icd-11-implementation

In the lesson, we will analyze the factors of burnout syndrome and its preventive measures.

Lesson question:

• What preventive measures can we take to prevent burnout syndrome for ourselves and others?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 258
• WHO (2025). ICD-11 Implementation, https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/frequently-asked-questions/icd-11-implementation

In this lecture, we will analyze academic stress – the main stress factors for students and teaching staff. We will explore the most important stressors for students and the consequences of academic stress.

Questions of the lesson:

• What factors in the study process most often cause stress in students and how do these factors manifest themselves in the daily life of students?
• How can prolonged and unmanaged stress affect a student's health and academic performance?
• What resources can students themselves use to reduce the negative impact of academic stress?

Literature:

• Brata, W., Susanto, H., Zubaidah, S. (2025). Theoretical underpinnings and future research on academic stress in biological and educational perspectives. Review Article, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12 (146), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04484-w
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

In this lecture, we will theoretically discuss how people cope with stress and what determines a person's psychological resilience. We will get to know the classification of stress coping strategies.

Questions of the lesson:

• What are the main categories of stress coping strategies and what practical techniques illustrate them?
• Which stress coping methods are considered unhealthy and how can they affect a person's psychological health in the long term?
• What is psychological resilience and what factors help a person be resistant to the negative effects of stress?

Literature:

• Jannah, M., Widohardhono, R., Rachman, N., Sholichah, IF., Purnomo, RAA., Jaroah, S., Hidayah, R. (2025). Student Athletes: Does Emotional Regulation Affect Mental Toughness? International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences 13(3), 571-576, https://www.hrpub.org/download/20250530/SAJ10-19931568.pdf
• Li, Y., Zheng, P. (2025). Trait resilience protects against social anxiety in college students through emotion regulation and coping strategies. Scientific Reports, 15 (1), DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-13674-0
• Stokenberga, I., Freimane, G., Sudraba, V., Bite, V. (2015). Veselība un slimība psiholoģijā. Psiholoģija 2, Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 171-244.

This lecture focuses on sources of everyday (domestic) stress and their management. We will analyze the most common everyday stressors. The cumulative effect of "small" everyday stressors will be emphasized. The lecture will discuss stress management strategies for everyday life.

Questions of the lecture:

• What everyday life events and situations most often cause chronic stress in people, and how to recognize these sources of stress in a timely manner?
• How do global crisis events (such as the pandemic, war, economic crises) resonate in the level of everyday stress for individuals?
• Why should "small" domestic stressors not be ignored, and what is their possible cumulative effect on a person's psycho-emotional state?

Literature:

• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations. BMC Public Health, 24 (3576), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

In this lesson, we will explore various scientifically-based methods used for stress reduction and management.

Lesson questions:

• What are the key stress reduction techniques that an individual can use in their daily life and how do they work on the mind and body?
• Why are physical activity and relaxation techniques considered effective stress coping methods, and what are the scientifically-proven benefits of these methods?

Literature:

• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081077
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). Stresa anatomija, R.:154

In the final theoretical lecture We will look at the development trends and new challenges in stress management in society. We will discuss how the "nature" of stress has changed in the 21st century of digitization. We will analyze a new phenomenon "technostress" and its contributing consequences and impact on the body.

Class questions:

• What new types and sources of stress have emerged in today's digitalized and globalized world, and how do they affect human well-being?
• Why stress management is not just an individual task – what role do employers, educational institutions and public policy play in reducing stress in society?
• How does reducing stress levels and supporting mental health in society relate to the Sustainable Development Goals and overall societal well-being?

Literature:

• Borle, P., Reichel, K., Niebuhr, F., Voelter-Mahlknecht, S. (2021). How are techno-stressors associated with mental health and work outcomes? A systematic review of occupational exposure to information and communication technologies within the technostress model.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16):8673. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18168673
• Litan, DE. (2025). The Impact of Technostress Generated by Artificial Intelligence on the Quality of Life: The Mediating Role of Positive and Negative Affect.Behavioral Sciences,15(4):552. doi:10.3390/bs15040552
• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations.BMC Public Health, 24 (3576),https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4

The goal of the practical class is to help students become aware of their stress level and identify individual stressors. At the beginning of the class, students will fill out a stress self-assessment survey to quantify how much stress they have experienced in the last month. After that, students will be introduced to the "stress diary" method.

Questions of the class:

• How to assess your subjective stress level and what are the signs that stress has become elevated?
• How to identify your main sources of stress in everyday life - which events or situations cause me the most tension personally?
• What physical and emotional symptoms does stress cause in me, and what are my current (perhaps unconscious) strategies to respond to it?

Literature:

• Piao, X., Xie, J., Managi, S. (2024). Continuous worsening of population emotional stress globally: universality and variations. BMC Public Health, 24 (3576), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20961-4
• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

The focus of this lesson is to learn relaxation techniques that reduce acute stress reactions.

Lesson questions:

• How to properly perform deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation, and what physiological changes do these methods cause in the body?
• Which of the learned relaxation techniques do I personally consider the most effective for me, and in what moments of everyday life could I use it to reduce stress?
• Why can regular practice of relaxation exercises increase stress resilience in the long term?

Literature:

• Tavoian, D., Craighead, DH., (2023). Deep breathing exercise at work: Potential applications and impact. Frontiers in Physiology, 14:1040091. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1040091

In this practical session, students will learn cognitive techniques for stress reduction – recognizing negative thoughts arising in stressful situations and transforming them into more constructive ones.

Session questions:

• How to recognize thinking errors and negative automatic thoughts in stressful situations, and how to consciously transform them into more positive and realistic beliefs?
• How to approach a problem that causes stress in a structured way to find possible solutions?
• How can proactive action and regaining a sense of control over the situation affect stress levels compared to passive avoidance?

Literature:

• Brata, W., Susanto, H., Zubaidah, S. (2025). Theoretical underpinnings and future research on academic stress in biological and educational perspectives. Review Article, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12 (146), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04484-w
• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

In this lecture, students will experience a practical introduction to the application of mindfulness techniques as a support for stress reduction.

Lecture questions:

• What is mindfulness and how can regular use of mindfulness techniques help reduce the subjective experience of stress?
• What were the personal challenges and benefits I experienced when trying out a short "body scan" exercise?
• How could I practice mindfulness techniques in my daily life in the future (mentioning a specific situation or moment where to integrate it), and how can it potentially improve my ability to cope with stressful situations?

Literature:

• Li, WW., Nannestad, J., Leow, T., Heward, C. (2024). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on depression, PTSD, and mindfulness among military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Open, 11:20551029241302969. doi: 10.1177/20551029241302969

This lesson is devoted to the possibilities of using social skills and support in stress regulation.

Lesson questions:

• What resources of social support are available to me and how could I more actively involve them in my stress management?
• What are the signs of active, empathetic listening and how can such listening help reduce the speaker's stress?
• What techniques can be used to politely but firmly refuse a request or suggestion that puts too much pressure on me, how does setting such a boundary help reduce stress in the long term?

Literature:

• Ābeltiņa, M. (2023). Professional Burnout. Zvaigzne ABC Publishing, 258
• Zakriževska-Belogrudova, M. (2021). The Anatomy of Stress, R.:154

This lesson focuses on the role of healthy lifestyle in stress resilience and concludes with the development of an individual stress management plan for each student.

Lesson questions:

• What lifestyle changes (sleep, nutrition, physical activity) can most improve my ability to withstand stress, what specific changes did I decide to make in my habits?
• How to create a personal stress management plan? What should it include and how does it help structure my actions in stressful situations?

Literature:

• Shchaslyvyi, A., Antonenko, SV., Telegeev, G. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/ijerph21081077

This will be a continuation of the previous lesson, in which each student will summarize all the methods and information learned in the course to create their own personalized stress management plan. This plan should include: my main stressors; early signs that I am stressed; my "action strategy" - which methods I will use to relieve acute stress; long-term prevention - what I will do on a regular basis. Students develop the plan in writing, which is considered a "work sheet" that the student takes with them into real life. The work must be presented in the lecture theatre.

Lesson question:

• Why is it important to proactively plan steps to reduce stress and not wait until stress becomes uncontrollable?